Pratyaksha
Pratyakṣa (IAST)Translation: "perception"
A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy
Sanskrit: प्रत्यक्ष
Transliteration: Pratyakṣa
Translation: "perception (from the verb root akṣ = "to reach, penetrate, embrace" + prati = "against, back")"
Definition:- It is a valid means of knowledge (Pramana) for every school of Indian philosophy.
- According to Nyāya, it is knowledge generated by sense-object contact. Later Naiyāyikas defined it as direct apprehension so as to include God's perception and the supernormal perception of yogins.
- What distinguishes it from all other types of cognition is its immediacy. Two stages are distiguished: indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) and determinate (Savikalpa). Generally, the former is bare awareness of an object, while the latter is a cognition of an object that is qualified. The former gives isolated sense data, while the latter compounds these elements and subject-predicate knowledge arises.
- The Nyāya school gives six normal (Laukika) types of perception: Saṃyoga, Samyukta-Samavāya, Samyukta-Samaveta Sama-Vāya, Samavāya, Samaveta-Samavāya, and Viśeṣaṇa-Viśeṣya-Bhāva (or Viśeṣaṇatā). It also lists three supernormal (Alaukika) types: Sāmānya-Laksana, Jñāna-Lakṣaṇa, and Yogaja.
- According to Sāṅkhya, there are two stages in perception—the indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) and the determinate (Savikalpa)—but its explanation is different from that of the Nyāya school. Sāṅkhya says that the former is a vague awareness which later becomes clear and distinct through analysis, synthesis, and interpretation. Thus Sāṅkhya does not adhere to a mosaic theory of knowledge but more of an organic growth from the simple to the complex.
- The Mīmāṃsaka agrees with Nyāya's definition but interprets the two stages in perception differently. Indeterminate perception is simple observation or mere awareness. This knowledge is vague and indefinite. Class characteristics and specific features are not recognized here, whereas they are noted only in determinate perception. Indirect perception is not what has to be inferred on the basis of the subsequent determinate perception, as in Nyāya, but is an experienced stage of perception itself. Also, Nyāya accepts supernormal modes of perception while Mīmāṃsā does not. To be perceived, an object must be present and fit to be perceived. Thus, the sense organs have their limitations and what is beyond them is open only for the Veda to reveal.
- According to Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta, indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) perception is not perception of a mere, unqualified "that." All knowledge, in this school, is of a qualified object. Thus, indeterminate perception is perception for the first time, while determinate (Savikalpa) perception signifies perception of the same object on the second and subsequent occasions.
- Dvaita Vedānta accepts only deteminate (Savikalpa) perception. Knowledge being both unqualified and object-less is held to be impossible. Perception is defined as knowledge generated by sense-object contact with both the sense organ and the object, free from defects.
- The Buddhists accept only indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) perception.
- The Nyāya school recognizes both external (Bāhya) and internal (Manasa) perceptions.
- According to Jainism, there are two types of perception: Vyāvahārika—with sense organs—and Nīja—without sense organs. Nīja is of two types: Vikala—imperfect (or Avadhi and Manaḥ-Paryāya-Jñāna)—and Sakala—perfect (or Kevala-Jñāna).
- According to Advaita Vedanta, indeterminate (Nirvikalpa) perception presents the Absolute (Brahman) alone as its cognition. It is knowledge which does not apprehend any relatedness of the substantive and its qualifying attribute. Thus, it is not necessarily the first or initial perception but any perception which is indeterminate. Examples of this include "Thou art that" (Tat Tvam Asi) or "This is that Devadatta" (So'yam Devadattaḥ).
Reference:
- Grimes, John (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. Albany: State University of New York Press
